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<title>Power module</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Power module</span></span>

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<p>A <b>power module</b> or <b>power electronic module</b> provides the physical containment for several <a href="Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">power</a> components, usually <a href="Power_semiconductor_device" title="Power semiconductor device">power semiconductor devices</a>. These power semiconductors (so-called <a href="Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">dies</a>) are typically soldered or sintered on a <a href="Power_electronic_substrate" title="Power electronic substrate">power electronic substrate</a> that carries the power semiconductors, provides electrical and thermal contact and <a href="Electrical_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulation">electrical insulation</a> where needed. Compared to discrete power semiconductors in plastic housings as TO-247 or <a href="TO-220" title="TO-220">TO-220</a>, power packages provide a higher <a href="Power_density" title="Power density">power density</a> and are in many cases more reliable.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Power modules trace their roots to the mid-20th century, when power switching was handled by discrete <a href="Bipolar_junction_transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar junction transistors">bipolar junction transistors</a> (BJTs) and, later, a <a href="Darlington_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Darlington pair">Darlington pair</a> mounted in screw-terminal packages. These early assemblies offered high current gain but suffered from bulky form factors, limited thermal performance, and complex wiring.

</p><p>In 1974, Semikron introduced the SemiPack 1, the first commercially available “potential-free” hybrid power module. It was available in a variety of connection layouts using both <a href="Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a> and <a href="Thyristor" title="Thyristor">thyristors</a>. “Potential-free” meant that the module’s metal baseplate is electrically isolated from its semiconductor circuitry, allowing direct mounting to a heatsink without additional insulation. <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During the 1980s, module packaging evolved with the adoption of <a href="Power_electronic_substrate#Direct_Bonded_Copper_(DBC)_substrate" title="Power electronic substrate">direct-bonded copper (DBC) substrates</a> and <a href="Power_electronic_substrate#Insulated_Metal_substrate_(IMS)" title="Power electronic substrate">insulated metal substrates (IMS)</a>, boosting <a href="Temperature_cycling" title="Temperature cycling">thermal cycling</a> resilience.<sup id="cite_ref-JEDEC_Temp_Cycle_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JEDEC_Temp_Cycle-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, as the technology advanced over time, the <a href="Gate_driver" title="Gate driver">gate‐drive</a> requirements grew more sophisticated.

</p><p>The early 1990s saw the commercial rise of <a href="IGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="IGBT">IGBT</a> (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) modules. By combining MOSFET‐like gate control with BJT current capacity, IGBTs rapidly displaced Darlington‐based designs in 600–1,200 V classes. Half-bridge modules, complete with built-in antiparallel <a href="Freewheeling_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Freewheeling diode">freewheeling diodes (FWD)</a>, became ubiquitous in power modules.

</p><p>Through the 2000s, power modules integrated on‐board temperature sensors - both substrate-mounted <a href="Thermistor" title="Thermistor">NTC thermistors</a> as well as <a href="Thermal_diodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal diodes">on-chip temperature sense diodes</a>, gate‐driver ICs, and fault‐protection circuits, giving birth to the first “smart” power modules. Substrate materials and molding compounds continued to improve, extending lifetimes under harsh power cycling.

</p><p>More recently, <a href="Wide-bandgap_semiconductor" title="Wide-bandgap semiconductor">wide-bandgap</a> devices, such as <a href="Silicon_carbide#Power_electronic_devices" title="Silicon carbide">SiC MOSFETs</a>, have entered power‐module form factors, offering higher switching frequencies, lower losses, and smaller footprints. Hybrid modules pairing SiC <a href="Schottky_barrier_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Schottky barrier diode">Schottky barrier diodes</a> with silicon IGBTs, and full SiC modules, demonstrate the continual drive to push performance while leveraging existing package platforms.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Module_Topologies">Module Topologies</h2></div>

<p>Besides modules that contain a single power electronic switch (as <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>, <a href="IGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="IGBT">IGBT</a>, <a href="BJT" class="mw-redirect" title="BJT">BJT</a>, <a href="Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a>, <a href="Gate_turn-off_thyristor" title="Gate turn-off thyristor">GTO</a> or <a href="JFET" title="JFET">JFET</a>) or <a href="Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>, classical power modules contain multiple semiconductor dies that are connected to form an electrical circuit of a certain structure, called topology. Modules also contain other components such as ceramic capacitors to minimize switching voltage overshoots and NTC <a href="Thermistor" title="Thermistor">thermistors</a> to monitor the module's substrate temperature. Examples of broadly available topologies implemented in modules are:

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<ul><li>switch (<a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>, <a href="IGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="IGBT">IGBT</a>), with <a href="Antiparallel_(electronics)" title="Antiparallel (electronics)">antiparallel</a> <a href="Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a>;</li>

<li><a href="Bridge_rectifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge rectifier">bridge rectifier</a> containing four (1-phase) or six (3-phase) diodes</li>

<li>half bridge<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="Inverter_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverter (electrical)">inverter</a> leg, with two switches and their corresponding antiparallel diodes)</li>

<li>H-Bridge (four switches and the corresponding antiparallel diodes)</li>

<li>boost or power factor correction (one (or two) switches with one (or two) high frequency rectifying diodes)</li>

<li>ANPFC (power factor correction leg with two switches and their corresponding antiparallel diodes and four high frequency rectifying diodes)</li>

<li>three level NPC (I-Type) (multilevel <a href="Inverter_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverter (electrical)">inverter</a> leg with four switches and their corresponding antiparallel diodes)</li>

<li>three level MNPC (T-Type) (multilevel <a href="Inverter_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverter (electrical)">inverter</a> leg with four switches and their corresponding antiparallel diodes)</li>

<li>three level ANPC (multilevel <a href="Inverter_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverter (electrical)">inverter</a> leg with six switches and their corresponding antiparallel diodes)</li>

<li>three level H6.5<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - (consisting of six switches (four fast IGBTs/two slower IGBTs) and five fast diodes)</li>

<li>three-phase inverter<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (six switches and the corresponding antiparallel diodes)</li>

<li>Power Interface Module (PIM) - (consisting of the input rectifier, power factor correction and inverter stages)</li>

<li>Intelligent Power Module (IPM) - (consisting of the power stages with their dedicated gate drive protection circuits. May also be integrated with the input rectifier and power factor correction stages.)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrical_Interconnection_Technologies">Electrical Interconnection Technologies</h2></div>

<p>Additional to the traditional screw contacts the electrical connection between the module and other parts of the power electronic system can also be achieved by pin contacts (soldered onto a <a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">PCB</a>), press-fit contacts pressed into PCB <a href="Via_(electronics)" title="Via (electronics)">vias</a>, spring contacts that inherently press on contact areas of a PCB or by pure pressure contact where corrosion-proof surface areas are directly pressed together.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Press-fit pins achieve a very high reliability and ease the mounting process without the need for soldering.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to press-fit connections, spring contacts have the benefit of allowing easy and non-destructive removal of the connection several times, as for inspection or replacement of a module, for instance.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both contact types have rather limited current-carrying capability due to their comparatively low cross-sectional area and small contact surface. Therefore, modules often contain multiple pins or springs for each of the electrical power connections.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_Research_and_Development">Current Research and Development</h2></div>

<p>The current focus in R&D is on cost reduction, increase of <a href="Power_density" title="Power density">power density</a>, increase of reliability and reduction of parasitic lumped elements. These parasitics are unwanted capacitances between circuit parts and inductances of circuit traces. Both can have negative effects on the electromagnetic radiation (<a href="Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">EMR</a>) of the module if it is operated as an inverter, for instance. Another problem connected to parasitics is their negative impact on the switching behavior and the switching loss of the power semiconductors. Therefore, manufacturers work on minimizing the parasitic elements of their modules while keeping cost low and maintain a high degree of interchangeability of their modules with those of a second source (other manufacturer).

A further aspect for optimization is the so-called thermal path between the heat source (the dies) and the heat-sink. The heat has to pass through different physical layers such as solder, DCB, baseplate, thermal interface material (<a href="Thermal_grease" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal grease">TIM</a>) and the bulk of the heat-sink, until it is transferred to a gaseous medium such as air or a fluid medium such as water or oil. Since modern silicon-carbide power semiconductors show a larger power density, the requirements for heat transfer are increasing.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<p>Power modules are used for power conversion equipment such as <a href="Industrial_motor_drives" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial motor drives">industrial motor drives</a>, embedded motor drives, <a href="Uninterruptible_power_supplies" class="mw-redirect" title="Uninterruptible power supplies">uninterruptible power supplies</a>, <a href="AC-DC_power_supplies" class="mw-redirect" title="AC-DC power supplies">AC-DC power supplies</a> and in welder power supplies.

</p><p>Power modules are also widely found in inverters for <a href="Renewable_energies" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energies">renewable energies</a> as <a href="Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a>, <a href="Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a> panels, tidal power plants and <a href="Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a> (EVs).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturers">Manufacturers</h2></div>

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<li><a href="Eltek" title="Eltek">Eltek</a></li>

<li><a href="Vishay" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishay">Vishay</a></li>

<li><a href="Danfoss" title="Danfoss">Danfoss</a></li>

<li><a href="StarPower" title="StarPower">StarPower</a></li>

<li><a href="Infineon" class="mw-redirect" title="Infineon">Infineon</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitsubishi" title="Mitsubishi">Mitsubishi</a></li>

<li><a href="Semikron" title="Semikron">Semikron</a></li>

<li>Vincotech<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Dynex_Semiconductor" title="Dynex Semiconductor">Dynex Semiconductor</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuji_Electric" title="Fuji Electric">Fuji Electric</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>WeEn Semiconductors</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Powerpack_(drivetrain)" title="Powerpack (drivetrain)">Powerpack (drivetrain)</a></li>

<li><a href="Power-egg" title="Power-egg">Power-egg</a></li>

<li><a href="Prime_mover_(locomotive)" title="Prime mover (locomotive)">Prime mover</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221208010353/https://www.semikron-danfoss.com/dl/service-support/downloads/download/semikron-application-manual-power-semiconductors-english-en-2015/">"Semikron Application Manual: Power Semiconductors"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.semikron-danfoss.com/dl/service-support/downloads/download/semikron-application-manual-power-semiconductors-english-en-2015.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2022-12-08.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-JEDEC_Temp_Cycle-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JEDEC_Temp_Cycle_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/docs/22a104d.pdf">"JESD22-A104D: Temperature Cycling"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>JEDEC</i>. JEDEC Solid State Technology Association<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-auto-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vincotech.com/products/by-topologies.html">"Power Modules Products | Vincotech"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160109030630/http://www.power-mag.com:80/pdf/feature_pdf/1418228828_Vincotech_Feature_0714_Layout_1.pdf">"New 3-Level Topology for Efficient Solar Applications"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.power-mag.com/pdf/feature_pdf/1418228828_Vincotech_Feature_0714_Layout_1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-01-09.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFM._Meisser,_D._Hamilton_and_P._Mawby2014" class="citation book cs1">M. Meisser, D. Hamilton and P. Mawby (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260424145"><i>DCB-based low-inductive SiC modules for high frequency operation</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783800735785</bdi> – via <a href="ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.infineon.com/pressfit-product-information">http://www.infineon.com/pressfit-product-information</a> </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.semikron.com/dl/service-support/downloads/download/semikron-flyer-skim-2014-04-08.html">http://www.semikron.com/dl/service-support/downloads/download/semikron-flyer-skim-2014-04-08.html</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vincotech.com/">"Home"</a>. <i>vincotech.com</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fujielectric.com/products/semiconductors_devices/semiconductor/">"Power Semiconductors"</a>. <i>Fuji Electric Global</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.semikron-danfoss.com/dl/service-support/downloads/download/semikron-application-manual-power-semiconductors-english-en-2015.pdf">Semikron Application Manual Power Semiconductors (2015)</a>: Extensive information about power semiconductor application and power module technology</li>

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